Natya Shastra, composed by the sage Bharata Muni, is the ancient Sanskrit text that laid the foundation for Indian classical dance, theatre, and performing arts. Often referred to as the “fifth Veda,” it is not just a manual for performance—it is a spiritual and philosophical guide that weaves art with life, culture, and cosmic order.
When we witness the grace of Bharatanatyam, the vivid expressions of Kathakali, or the dramatic storytelling in traditional Indian theatre, we are seeing the principles of Natya Shastra in action. Its influence spans thousands of years, shaping the aesthetics, structure, and emotional depth of Indian performance traditions.
But how did this monumental work come into being? What historical and cultural forces led to its creation? And why does it remain so pivotal in Indian art and culture even today?
In this post, we take a journey back in time to explore the origins, evolution, and enduring impact of the Natya Shastra — enriched by an intriguing folklore that has surrounded this sacred text for centuries.
Origins: The Sage Bharata and the Fifth Veda
The Natya Shastra is traditionally attributed to the sage Bharata Muni, who is said to have composed this extensive treatise between 200 BCE and 200 CE. The text itself is often called the “Fifth Veda”, a term that highlights its revered status. While the four Vedas are sacred scriptures that primarily deal with ritual, philosophy, and hymns, the Natya Shastra was considered the Veda that embodied the arts — drama, dance, and music — as a path to spiritual and emotional experience.
Unlike the other Vedas, which were often limited to priests, Natya Shastra was intended for a broader audience, encompassing performers, audiences, and scholars alike.
The Mythical Story Behind Natya Shastra: A Divine Gift
According to popular folklore found in many classical dance traditions and regional storytelling, the Natya Shastra is said to have a divine origin story that blends mythology and cultural memory.
It is believed that the Gods, concerned about the disconnect growing between humans and the divine due to rigid rituals and the esoteric nature of Vedic knowledge, sought a way to communicate spiritual truths and moral lessons in a form accessible to all people.
Lord Brahma, the creator god in Hindu cosmology, is said to have been the one who conceived the idea of Natya — a combination of music, dance, and drama — as a means to teach and inspire.
In this legend, Brahma called upon his son, the sage Bharata, and inspired him to create a text that would integrate the arts as a universal language of the soul. According to Indian tradition, the divine knowledge of performing arts was taught by Lord Shiva to the sage Bharata. Bharata is credited with compiling this knowledge into the Natya Shastra, an ancient Sanskrit treatise on drama, dance, and music.
The Natya Shastra codifies the techniques, gestures (mudras), facial expressions (abhinaya), and emotional states (rasas) that form the basis of classical Indian performance. This transmission highlights Shiva’s role as the ultimate source and teacher of the performing arts.
Bharata thus composed the Natya Shastra under divine guidance, incorporating not only technical instructions but also the philosophy of rasa — the emotional flavors that move the human heart.
This story underscores the sacredness of the Natya Shastra and explains why it is called the Fifth Veda — a spiritual gift meant to bridge heaven and earth through the arts.
Lord Shiva as the Lord of Dance (Nataraja)
Lord Shiva is famously known as Nataraja, which means the “Lord of Dance.” In this form, Shiva performs the cosmic dance called Tandava, representing the eternal cycles of creation, preservation, and destruction in the universe. This dance is not merely artistic but symbolizes the rhythm and flow of life itself. The Tandava is believed to be the source of all movement, energy, and artistic expression, laying the foundation for Indian classical dance and drama.
The Natya Shastra: A Guide to Art and Expression
The Natya Shastra is much more than a technical manual. It combines artistic expression with spiritual philosophy, describing how dance and drama can evoke emotions and convey stories that connect performers and audiences to deeper truths. The text elaborates on various elements such as posture, gestures, costumes, stage design, and music, all inspired by the dynamic and rhythmic qualities of Shiva’s Tandava.
Shiva’s Dance as a Symbol of Cosmic Energy
Shiva’s Tandava embodies the cosmic forces that govern the universe—the creation of life, its sustenance, and eventual dissolution. This symbolic aspect of dance teaches that art is a reflection of the divine cosmic order. Through their performances, artists aspire to channel this universal energy, transforming their art into a spiritual experience. This understanding elevates Indian classical dance and drama from mere entertainment to a sacred practice.
Influence on Classical Dance Forms
The influence of Lord Shiva and the Natya Shastra is clearly visible in various Indian classical dance forms such as Bharatanatyam, Odissi, Kathak, and others. These styles incorporate gestures, storytelling techniques, and rhythms that are rooted in Shiva’s cosmic dance. Many dancers invoke Lord Shiva at the beginning of their performances, paying homage to him as the originator and protector of the art.
The Eternal Connection Between Shiva and Natya Shastra
Lord Shiva as Nataraja is the divine source of the Natya Shastra and, by extension, the classical arts of dance and drama in India. His cosmic dance serves as both the inspiration and the spiritual framework for these art forms, blending creativity with cosmic significance. This connection underscores the sacred nature of performance in Indian culture, where art becomes a path to experiencing and expressing the divine.
Composition and Structure
Natya Shastra is an encyclopedic work of over 6,000 Sanskrit verses, organized into 36 chapters. Its scope is vast — covering everything from stage design, costume, and makeup to music, rhythm, gestures, and acting techniques.
Because of its comprehensive nature, many scholars believe that Natya Shastra was not the work of a single individual, but rather a compilation of earlier oral traditions and theatrical practices codified by Bharata Muni and later redactors.
The text’s poetic form and detailed instructions indicate that it was meant to be both studied and practically applied in theatres and royal courts.
Historical Context: When and Why Was It Written?
The period between 200 BCE and 200 CE was a time of immense cultural growth in India. It was during or shortly after the Mauryan empire, and the early centuries of the Common Era saw a flourishing of arts and intellectual thought.
Bharata’s Natya Shastra emerged in this context as a means to standardize and elevate performance arts, which had previously been transmitted orally and exhibited significant regional and community variations.
The text also served a social purpose — to unify people through shared stories, emotions, and spiritual ideals conveyed via performances. It was believed that engaging with art and drama was not merely entertainment but a way to experience rasa — profound emotional flavors — that could purify the mind and soul.
Evolution and Influence Through the Ages
Ancient and Medieval Times
After its composition, the Natya Shastra became the foundational text for classical Indian arts. Its principles influenced various regional forms of theatre and dance, including Sanskrit drama, Kutiyattam (one of the oldest living theatrical traditions), and later classical dance forms like Bharatanatyam and Kathak.
Medieval scholars and artists expanded on Bharata’s work, adding new rasas (such as Shanta – peace) and refining performance techniques. The text was studied in royal courts, monasteries, and by practitioners who sought to keep the classical traditions alive.
Cross-Cultural Impact
The influence of Natya Shastra extended beyond India’s borders. Southeast Asian classical dance-drama traditions, such as those in Cambodia, Indonesia, and Thailand, bear striking similarities in gestures, costumes, and storytelling techniques that can be traced back to this ancient Indian treatise.
Rediscovery and Modern Relevance
By the colonial period, many classical Indian art forms had diminished in prominence. However, the 20th century saw a revival, with scholars and artists returning to Natya Shastra to reclaim India’s artistic heritage. Today, the Natya Shastra continues to be studied extensively by dancers, musicians, theatre practitioners, and academics worldwide. Its teachings are foundational to classical dance training and dramaturgy.
Why Natya Shastra Endures
What makes the Natya Shastra so timeless? It is not simply a technical manual, but a holistic philosophy that connects art to human emotion, spirituality, and social experience. Its principles of rasa (emotional essence) and abhinaya(expression) remain relevant because they speak to universal aspects of storytelling and performance that transcend culture and time.
Indian Classical Dance Forms and Natya Shastra
The classical dance forms of India are deeply intertwined with the Natya Shastra, not just technically but also through rich mythological stories that explain their origins, purpose, and spiritual significance. Here are some fascinating stories and connections for a few major classical dances:
1. Bharatanatyam: The Dance of the Devadasis and Lord Shiva
Connection to Natya Shastra:
Bharatanatyam is considered one of the oldest classical dance forms directly inspired by the principles laid out in the Natya Shastra. It employs the detailed abhinaya (expressions), mudras (hand gestures), and rhythmic patterns that Bharata Muni described.
Mythological Story:
According to legend, Bharatanatyam is the dance of Lord Shiva in his form as Nataraja, the cosmic dancer who performs the Tandava — a dance representing creation, preservation, and destruction of the universe. Shiva’s dance is said to embody the very essence of rhythm and cosmic order, aligning perfectly with the Natya Shastra’s idea of art as a spiritual expression.
The dance was traditionally performed by devadasis, temple dancers who acted out stories from Hindu mythology, especially from the epics and Puranas, to bring divine stories to life for the worshippers. This temple connection reflects the Natya Shastra’s vision of drama and dance as sacred acts that evoke rasa (emotional flavor) and spiritual experience.
2. Kathakali: The Visual Epic from Kerala
Connection to Natya Shastra:
Kathakali is a dramatic dance form that closely follows the guidelines of the Natya Shastra in terms of abhinaya, mudras, and character types. Its elaborate makeup and costumes are vivid examples of the aharya abhinaya (costume and makeup) described by Bharata.
Mythological Story:
Kathakali’s stories are mostly drawn from the Ramayana and Mahabharata, performed through a blend of dance, music, and acting. One famous tale is that of Kottarakkara Thampuran, a 17th-century Kerala king who is credited with developing Kathakali by adapting older temple dances and making them more elaborate and accessible to public audiences.
The mythic element lies in how performers become embodiments of gods, demons, and heroes during the performance, invoking the ancient belief from the Natya Shastra that the actor becomes a vessel for divine emotion and presence.
3. Odissi: The Temple Dance of Odisha
Connection to Natya Shastra:
Odissi’s fluid movements, sculpturesque poses, and narrative expressiveness are rooted in the Natya Shastra’s prescriptions. The dance emphasizes the tribhanga posture (three bends in the body), which is often depicted in temple sculptures that inspired the dance’s revival.
Mythological Story:
Odissi is said to have originated as a Mahari dance, performed by female temple dancers (Maharis) in the Jagannath Temple in Puri, dedicated to Lord Krishna. The dance narrates stories of Krishna’s playful and divine exploits, blending devotion with storytelling.
A famous legend says that Lord Jagannath himself is believed to have blessed the dancers, inspiring them to convey stories through this sacred art form — an embodiment of the Natya Shastra’s idea that drama and dance are divine acts meant to invoke spiritual bliss.
4. Kathak: The Storytelling Dance of North India
Connection to Natya Shastra:
While Kathak evolved with influences from Persian and Mughal culture, its foundation remains deeply connected to the Natya Shastra’s techniques of rhythm, expression, and narrative structure.
Mythological Story:
The word “Kathak” derives from “Katha”, meaning story. Kathak dancers were originally storytellers (Kathakas) who traveled and performed tales from Hindu epics through expressive gestures and dance.
A famous story connects Kathak to Lord Vishnu’s incarnation as Krishna, especially his childhood leelas (divine plays). Kathak’s rhythmic footwork and expressive storytelling are seen as ways to bring these divine stories alive, much like the Natya Shastra’s goal of emotional engagement through performance.
5. Manipuri — The Gentle Dance of the Vaishnavites
Connection to the Natya Shastra
While Manipuri dance may appear more fluid and delicate than other classical forms, its foundation is firmly rooted in the principles of the Natya Shastra. The text’s emphasis on bhava (emotion) and rasa (aesthetic experience) finds a unique expression in Manipuri’s soft gestures, subtle expressions, and graceful movements. Unlike more dramatic forms, Manipuri interprets these ancient guidelines with serenity, making it a spiritual offering as much as a performance.
Mythological Stories in Motion
Manipuri dance is deeply intertwined with Vaishnavite mythology, especially the love story of Radha and Krishna. Stories from the Bhagavata Purana and epics like the Mahabharata are brought to life through lyrical movements and devotional music. Rather than grand theatrics, the dance conveys these tales with inward emotion and poetic restraint, drawing audiences into a world of divine love and devotion.
6. Mohiniyattam — The Dance of the Enchantress
Connection to the Natya Shastra
Mohiniyattam, known for its graceful swaying movements and feminine charm, is deeply aligned with the core concepts of the Natya Shastra. Its emphasis on lasya—the soft, expressive aspect of dance—is a direct embodiment of the Natya Shastra’s classification of performance styles. The dance’s flowing movements, expressive eyes, and gentle abhinaya (expression) beautifully demonstrate the text’s guidance on conveying emotion and mood with subtlety and elegance.
Mythological Stories in Motion
Rooted in Kerala’s rich cultural and spiritual traditions, Mohiniyattam often portrays tales from Hindu mythology, especially stories of Mohini, the female avatar of Lord Vishnu. Mohini is famous for her role in the Samudra Manthan (churning of the ocean) myth, where she appears to distribute the nectar of immortality among the gods, tricking the demons. The dance reflects feminine grace and subtle expressions, focusing on emotions like shringara (love and enchantment), which are key to Natya Shastra’s rasa theory. Through fluid movements and expressive storytelling, the dance narrates episodes of divine intervention, love, and enchantment. These performances invite the audience into a mythic world where celestial beings come to life with poise and emotional depth.
7. Sattriya — The Sacred Dance of Assam
Connection to the Natya Shastra
Sattriya, one of the eight classical dance forms of India, adheres closely to the principles laid out in the Natya Shastra, particularly in its structured use of nritta (pure dance) and nritya (expressive dance). Developed by the saint-scholar Srimanta Sankardev in Assam’s Vaishnavite monasteries, Sattriya reflects the text’s ideals of rhythm, expression, and storytelling. Its codified gestures and footwork showcase a deep understanding of the ancient performing arts manual.
Mythological Stories in Motion
Sattriya dance brings to life episodes from the Bhagavata Purana, especially the life and deeds of Lord Krishna. Dancers, often male monks in traditional settings, perform dramas and devotional pieces that celebrate Krishna’s childhood, divine leelas (pastimes), and spiritual teachings. These stories are not only performances but acts of bhakti (devotion), connecting the audience to divine narratives through elegant expression.
8. Kuchipudi — The Dance Drama of Andhra
Connection to the Natya Shastra
Kuchipudi combines the dramatic elements of theatre with the elegance of classical dance, a perfect manifestation of the Natya Shastra’s vision of a holistic performing art. Rooted in Andhra Pradesh, this form integrates abhinaya (expression), vachika (speech), and nritta, staying true to the Shastra’s multidisciplinary approach. Traditionally performed by male Brahmins as dance-dramas, Kuchipudi has evolved while retaining its classical framework.
Mythological Stories in Motion
Kuchipudi performances are rich with Hindu mythological narratives, often featuring episodes from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and the Bhagavata Purana. Stories of Lord Rama, Krishna, and Shiva are enacted with dramatic flair, music, and dialogue. One of the most iconic pieces is the “Bhama Kalapam,” which explores the emotional journey of Satyabhama, Lord Krishna’s consort, blending humor, devotion, and drama.
9. Gaudiya Nritya — The Revival of Bengal’s Classical Dance
Connection to the Natya Shastra
Gaudiya Nritya, the classical dance form of Bengal, is a revived tradition that draws heavily on the foundational principles of the Natya Shastra. It follows classical guidelines on posture, movement, and expression, while also incorporating regional nuances. Though lesser known, its grammar and aesthetics closely align with the shastric traditions, making it a bridge between ancient theory and Bengal’s rich artistic heritage.
Mythological Stories in Motion
Gaudiya Nritya often showcases Vaishnavite themes, especially stories centered around Radha and Krishna and the Bhakti movement inspired by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. The dance uses expressive gestures and emotive storytelling to depict divine love and spiritual longing, making mythology an intimate, soulful experience for the viewer.
Conclusion: The Natya Shastra’s Living Legacy
All these classical dance forms, while stylistically different, share a common root in the Natya Shastra’s teachings. They embody its philosophy that art is not just entertainment but a sacred, transformative experience that connects performers, stories, and audiences through shared emotion and divine expression.
These dances keep ancient stories alive, not only by recounting mythology but by enacting the timeless principles of human emotion, beauty, and spirituality codified over two millennia ago by Bharata Muni
Acknowledgment:
I would like to acknowledge the works of Bharata Muni and scholars such as Manomohan Ghosh, Kapila Vatsyayan, G.K. Bhat, Leela Venkataraman and Ananda Lal whose translations and interpretations of the Natyasashtra have greatly contributed to the understanding of classical Indian theatre and dance. Their research provided the foundational knowledge for this article.
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Beautiful. When will be the second part came sir?
Splendid
lovely article. waiting for the 2nd part.